Historical data indicate that women played an important role in Indian civilization since ancient time. Women were entitled equal honor along with man in the society. They enjoyed full freedom and equality. However, for a very long time now, women in general have been forced to occupy secondary place in relation to men. Women have been relegated to margins despite of the fact that they numerically constitute at least half of the human population.
Paradoxically in our Indian society, where women deities are worshiped, women are denied an independent identity and status. Women of India are confused between her status as devi or dasi (also referred as devi-dasi dichotomy) with the rise of women liberation movement, this discrimination against women had been widely discussed and debated.
The root of the Indian women’s movement goes back to 19th century where more social reformers took up issues concerning women and started women organisations. Prominent among them are Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, M.G. Ranade etc. all who initiated various social reform movement.
1. Brahmo Samaj - It was founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828. Roy condemned Sati, Kulin Polyagamy and spoke in favour of women’s property rights. His efforts lead to passing of Sati Abolition Act in 1829.
2. Ishwar Chand Vidya Sagar - More often remembered for championing the cause of upliftment of status of women and widows remarriage campaign. His efforts along with other leads to successful passing of widow remarriage Act 1856.
3. Prarthana Samaj - It was founded by M.G. Ranade and R. G. Bhandarkar in 1867. Ranade criticized child marriage, polygamy, restriction on remarriage of widow and non access to education. His efforts among with other leads to successful passing of civil marriage Act 1872.
Civil Marriage Act, 1872: -Permitted inter-caste marriage, leagalized divorced and fixed 14 and 18 as the minimum age of marriage for girls.
4. Satya Shodhak Samaj: - It was founded by Jyotiba Phule in 1873. The main aim of samaj was : -
(a) Social service
(b) Spread of education among women and lower caste
(c) Support complete abolition of caste.
5. Arya Samaj: - It was founded by Dayanand Saraswati in 1875. It advocated (a) Inter caste marriages and child widow remarriage (b) Fixed age of marriage for boys (25 years) and girl (16 years)
(c) Equal status for women
All these movements achieved only limited success, major reasons for that was: -
(a) Gender equality was never an agenda for any of the above mentioned movements. They had a very limited perspective of changing the position of women within family through education etc.
(b) As per Karl Marx until and unless true class consciousness is generated among the members of movements, the success would be difficult to achieve. For true class consciousness, objective experience should give way to subjective consciousness. All these movement mentioned above were initiated by men, who lacks objective experience. Hence only limited success.
Women organisations started by Women
1. Ladies Society in Calcutta - It was founded by Swarn Kumari Devi (sister of Ravindra Nath Tagore). It emphasize on educating and imparting skills to widows and other poor woman to make them economically self reliant.
2. Arya Mahila Samaj - It was founded by Ramabai Saraswati in Pune. She championed the cause of promotion of women education.
3. Bharat Mahila Parishad - The national conference was formed at the 3rd INC Session (Madras 1887 President Badruddin Tyabji) to provide forum for discussion of social issues. The Bharat Mahila Parishad was the women wing of this. It was inaugurated in 1905. It focused on improving condition of widows, opposing child marriage, dowry and other evil customs.
4. Bharat Stree Mahamandal - It was founded by Sarla Devi Chaudhurani in 1910.
The objective was to bring women of all caste, classes and parties together on the basis of their common interest in the moral and material progress of women of India. It planned to open branches all over India to promote women’s education.
5. Women India Association (WIA) - It was founded by Annie Besant, Margaret cousins and Dorothy Jinarajadasa in 1917. All three Irish Women, theosophist who had voting rights in their country. The demand voting rights for women of India. They were joined by Malati Patwardhan, Ammu Swaminathan. Women India Association was in a sense, the 1st all India Women association.
6. All India women’s conference - It was founded by Margaret cousin in 1927. As an organisation it was dedicated to upliftment and betterment of women and children. It waged a vigorous campaign for rising the age of marriage which led to the passing of Child Marriage Restraint Act (Sarda Act) in 1929.
Women in a freedom Movement: During freedom movement, the struggle for women’s right and equality was seen as an integral part of the struggle for national independence.
Gandhi stressed that participation of women in the freedom struggle was an integral part of women’s dharma (duty). He felt that women were most suited for satyagraha (protest) as they have qualities appropriate for non violent struggle.
He saw women’s role as complementary to men.
7. Women in labour Movement: - In 1917, Anusuya Sarabhai had led the
Ahmedabad textile workers strike and in 1920 under her leadership, the majoor
mahajan i.e. Ahmadabad textile mill workers union was established.
In post independence period, two important organisation for rural women were setup i.e.
(i) Kasturba Memorial Trust: It was established in year 1945 to address the issue of women in rural India. It involve into constructive work among women and children in rural India in the field of education, health care, vocational training etc.
(ii) Bhartiya Grameen Mahila Sangh - Indian rural women organisation. It was founded in 1955 as non political organisation with branches over 14 states. The goal of Bhartiya Grameen Mahila Sangh is the welfare, upliftment and empowerment of women, children and the aged. It also works in field of developing leadership potential among rural women.
(iii) Self Employment Women’s Association (S.E.W.A.) - It is a trade union formed at the initiative of Ela Bhatt in 1972. Its aim was to improve the condition of poor women who worked in the unorganised sector by providing training, technical aid and collective bargaining.
(iv) Working Women’s Forum (W.W.F.) - In the forum is committed to poverty reduction and strengthening of economic, social and cultural status of poor working women, through micro-credit, training, social mobilization and other interventions to poor women.
(v) Sramik Mahila Sangathan (S.M.S.): - It is concerned with plight of women worker unorganised sector. It is active in state of Mahrashtra.
(vi) Annapurna Mahila Mandal (A.M.M.): It work for welfare of women and girl child.
It conduct various activities which include educating women on health, nutrition, child care, family planning and environment sanitation.
(vii) Confederation of Women Entrepreneur (C.O.W.E.): It is an NGO engage in the social and economic upliftment of women through entrepreneurship.
(viii) Chipko Movement: This movement began in 1973 in the small hilly town of Gopeshwar in Chamoli District when representatives from a sport factory, got licenses to setup its unit. It require cutting of tree and clearing of forest. Rural women and men embrace the tree in protest to save the tree from being cut.
Various institutional initiative and legislators has been introduced since independence to empower women.
(1) Sati (Prevention) Act 1987 –In rural Rajasthan, a young lady named Roop Kunwar sat on funeral pyre of her husband and become sati. Women organization start protesting that such medieval practice is still continued in Indian society. Government came with this response.
(2) Special Marriage Act 1954 - Minimum age of marriage was fixed at 21 year for males and 18 years for female.
(3) Hindu Succession Act 1956 - Equal share to daughter from the property of father, while a widow has the right to inherit husband’s property. This act was amended in 2005 by which now daughter got natural right to have equal share in ancestral properties.
(4) Immoral Traffic prevention Act (ITPA) 1986: - It was passed as Suppression of Immoral Trafficking in women and girls Act (S.I.T.A.) 1956. It was amended in 1986 and renamed I.T.P.A. It was enacted to prohibit or abolish traffic in men/women for purpose of prostitution/ flesh trade.
(5) Dowry Prohibition Act 1961- Under this Act, now provision of stringent punishment of 7 years added. Now court is empowered to act in its own knowledge or on complain by any recognized welfare organization on dowry murder. Indian evidence act is also amended to shift burden of proof to husband and family.
(6) Maternity Benefit Act 1961 - Act regulate the employment of women for certain period before and after child birth and to provide maternity benefits like paid leaves.
(7) Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act 1986 - Act prohibit indecent representation of women through advertisement or in publication, writing, painting or in any other manner.
(8) Protection of women from Domestic Violence Act 2005: It seeks to determine domestic violence in all forms against women and make it a punishable offence.
(9) Criminal Law (amendment) Act 2013: - Under this act, provision for increased sentence for rape convicts, including life term and death sentence. Besides providing for stringent punishment for offences such as acid attack, stalking and voyeurism.
Conclusion:
Although incidences like dowry, crimes like rape, sexual harassment at place of work are rising resulting into continued, exploitation of women. Yet one can’t deny that situation has improved since earlier times. Women, who now represent 48.2% of the population, are getting access to education and employment. Today, Indian women have excelled in each and every field. Their efforts results into India leading to ward part of gender parity and empowerment.
Paradoxically in our Indian society, where women deities are worshiped, women are denied an independent identity and status. Women of India are confused between her status as devi or dasi (also referred as devi-dasi dichotomy) with the rise of women liberation movement, this discrimination against women had been widely discussed and debated.
The root of the Indian women’s movement goes back to 19th century where more social reformers took up issues concerning women and started women organisations. Prominent among them are Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, M.G. Ranade etc. all who initiated various social reform movement.
1. Brahmo Samaj - It was founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828. Roy condemned Sati, Kulin Polyagamy and spoke in favour of women’s property rights. His efforts lead to passing of Sati Abolition Act in 1829.
2. Ishwar Chand Vidya Sagar - More often remembered for championing the cause of upliftment of status of women and widows remarriage campaign. His efforts along with other leads to successful passing of widow remarriage Act 1856.
3. Prarthana Samaj - It was founded by M.G. Ranade and R. G. Bhandarkar in 1867. Ranade criticized child marriage, polygamy, restriction on remarriage of widow and non access to education. His efforts among with other leads to successful passing of civil marriage Act 1872.
Civil Marriage Act, 1872: -Permitted inter-caste marriage, leagalized divorced and fixed 14 and 18 as the minimum age of marriage for girls.
4. Satya Shodhak Samaj: - It was founded by Jyotiba Phule in 1873. The main aim of samaj was : -
(a) Social service
(b) Spread of education among women and lower caste
(c) Support complete abolition of caste.
5. Arya Samaj: - It was founded by Dayanand Saraswati in 1875. It advocated (a) Inter caste marriages and child widow remarriage (b) Fixed age of marriage for boys (25 years) and girl (16 years)
(c) Equal status for women
All these movements achieved only limited success, major reasons for that was: -
(a) Gender equality was never an agenda for any of the above mentioned movements. They had a very limited perspective of changing the position of women within family through education etc.
(b) As per Karl Marx until and unless true class consciousness is generated among the members of movements, the success would be difficult to achieve. For true class consciousness, objective experience should give way to subjective consciousness. All these movement mentioned above were initiated by men, who lacks objective experience. Hence only limited success.
Women organisations started by Women
1. Ladies Society in Calcutta - It was founded by Swarn Kumari Devi (sister of Ravindra Nath Tagore). It emphasize on educating and imparting skills to widows and other poor woman to make them economically self reliant.
2. Arya Mahila Samaj - It was founded by Ramabai Saraswati in Pune. She championed the cause of promotion of women education.
3. Bharat Mahila Parishad - The national conference was formed at the 3rd INC Session (Madras 1887 President Badruddin Tyabji) to provide forum for discussion of social issues. The Bharat Mahila Parishad was the women wing of this. It was inaugurated in 1905. It focused on improving condition of widows, opposing child marriage, dowry and other evil customs.
4. Bharat Stree Mahamandal - It was founded by Sarla Devi Chaudhurani in 1910.
The objective was to bring women of all caste, classes and parties together on the basis of their common interest in the moral and material progress of women of India. It planned to open branches all over India to promote women’s education.
5. Women India Association (WIA) - It was founded by Annie Besant, Margaret cousins and Dorothy Jinarajadasa in 1917. All three Irish Women, theosophist who had voting rights in their country. The demand voting rights for women of India. They were joined by Malati Patwardhan, Ammu Swaminathan. Women India Association was in a sense, the 1st all India Women association.
6. All India women’s conference - It was founded by Margaret cousin in 1927. As an organisation it was dedicated to upliftment and betterment of women and children. It waged a vigorous campaign for rising the age of marriage which led to the passing of Child Marriage Restraint Act (Sarda Act) in 1929.
Women in a freedom Movement: During freedom movement, the struggle for women’s right and equality was seen as an integral part of the struggle for national independence.
Gandhi stressed that participation of women in the freedom struggle was an integral part of women’s dharma (duty). He felt that women were most suited for satyagraha (protest) as they have qualities appropriate for non violent struggle.
He saw women’s role as complementary to men.
7. Women in labour Movement: - In 1917, Anusuya Sarabhai had led the
Ahmedabad textile workers strike and in 1920 under her leadership, the majoor
mahajan i.e. Ahmadabad textile mill workers union was established.
In post independence period, two important organisation for rural women were setup i.e.
(i) Kasturba Memorial Trust: It was established in year 1945 to address the issue of women in rural India. It involve into constructive work among women and children in rural India in the field of education, health care, vocational training etc.
(ii) Bhartiya Grameen Mahila Sangh - Indian rural women organisation. It was founded in 1955 as non political organisation with branches over 14 states. The goal of Bhartiya Grameen Mahila Sangh is the welfare, upliftment and empowerment of women, children and the aged. It also works in field of developing leadership potential among rural women.
(iii) Self Employment Women’s Association (S.E.W.A.) - It is a trade union formed at the initiative of Ela Bhatt in 1972. Its aim was to improve the condition of poor women who worked in the unorganised sector by providing training, technical aid and collective bargaining.
(iv) Working Women’s Forum (W.W.F.) - In the forum is committed to poverty reduction and strengthening of economic, social and cultural status of poor working women, through micro-credit, training, social mobilization and other interventions to poor women.
(v) Sramik Mahila Sangathan (S.M.S.): - It is concerned with plight of women worker unorganised sector. It is active in state of Mahrashtra.
(vi) Annapurna Mahila Mandal (A.M.M.): It work for welfare of women and girl child.
It conduct various activities which include educating women on health, nutrition, child care, family planning and environment sanitation.
(vii) Confederation of Women Entrepreneur (C.O.W.E.): It is an NGO engage in the social and economic upliftment of women through entrepreneurship.
(viii) Chipko Movement: This movement began in 1973 in the small hilly town of Gopeshwar in Chamoli District when representatives from a sport factory, got licenses to setup its unit. It require cutting of tree and clearing of forest. Rural women and men embrace the tree in protest to save the tree from being cut.
Various institutional initiative and legislators has been introduced since independence to empower women.
(1) Sati (Prevention) Act 1987 –In rural Rajasthan, a young lady named Roop Kunwar sat on funeral pyre of her husband and become sati. Women organization start protesting that such medieval practice is still continued in Indian society. Government came with this response.
(2) Special Marriage Act 1954 - Minimum age of marriage was fixed at 21 year for males and 18 years for female.
(3) Hindu Succession Act 1956 - Equal share to daughter from the property of father, while a widow has the right to inherit husband’s property. This act was amended in 2005 by which now daughter got natural right to have equal share in ancestral properties.
(4) Immoral Traffic prevention Act (ITPA) 1986: - It was passed as Suppression of Immoral Trafficking in women and girls Act (S.I.T.A.) 1956. It was amended in 1986 and renamed I.T.P.A. It was enacted to prohibit or abolish traffic in men/women for purpose of prostitution/ flesh trade.
(5) Dowry Prohibition Act 1961- Under this Act, now provision of stringent punishment of 7 years added. Now court is empowered to act in its own knowledge or on complain by any recognized welfare organization on dowry murder. Indian evidence act is also amended to shift burden of proof to husband and family.
(6) Maternity Benefit Act 1961 - Act regulate the employment of women for certain period before and after child birth and to provide maternity benefits like paid leaves.
(7) Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act 1986 - Act prohibit indecent representation of women through advertisement or in publication, writing, painting or in any other manner.
(8) Protection of women from Domestic Violence Act 2005: It seeks to determine domestic violence in all forms against women and make it a punishable offence.
(9) Criminal Law (amendment) Act 2013: - Under this act, provision for increased sentence for rape convicts, including life term and death sentence. Besides providing for stringent punishment for offences such as acid attack, stalking and voyeurism.
Conclusion:
Although incidences like dowry, crimes like rape, sexual harassment at place of work are rising resulting into continued, exploitation of women. Yet one can’t deny that situation has improved since earlier times. Women, who now represent 48.2% of the population, are getting access to education and employment. Today, Indian women have excelled in each and every field. Their efforts results into India leading to ward part of gender parity and empowerment.
No comments:
Post a Comment